A record number of new student housing in Helsinki, Finland

A significant change in the structure of the city of Helsinki (Finland) is currently in progress.According to the Master Plan 2002 Helsinki will be developed as an European capital city.Helsinki is an important part of a growing metropolitan area. The urban structure is moderately becoming more integrated and dense, but without damaging the basic city characteristics or compromising its spaciousness and natural features.

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Länsisatama - West Harbour: downtown by the sea, Landscape architecture competition - Press photos--City of Helsinki/City Planning Dep.

The Länsisatama (West Harbour) redevelopment project of the Helsinki City Planning Department is comprised of more than 200 ha of land on the southwest waterfront of the Finnish city. Like other planning projects in the area, this one has generated a lot of public interest. Indeed, the construction of a big new urban district from scratch is rare and raises the question: what is the city of the future? [1]

The areas covered by Länsisatama project include:

• the residential and office area of Ruoholahti (built in the 1990s)
• Jätkäsaari (used previously for cargo and passenger traffic)
• Munkkisaari (used as a dockyard, part of which will be freed for other uses in 2012)
  

In 2007, a local plan for a comprehensive solution to the Jätkäsaari area was in preparation. This year, during the next spring, the first detailed plan with the largest permitted building volume in Jätkäsaari will be handled in the Helsinki City Council. Jätkäsaari will house 15,000 residents and provide 6,000 jobs. The area was freed for construction when the cargo port was transferred to the new harbour in Vuosaari, at the end of 2008.

Planning image of Vuosaari harbour--City of Helsinki/City Planning Dep.

Within the next two decades, the Länsisatama area will have been transformed into a waterfront city quarter with an estimated population of 22,000, which will enhance the appeal of central Helsinki and its services as a whole. [2]

Jätkäsaari (2007 data)

Size: 100 ha
Parks: 19.8 ha (13 m2 per capita)
Residents: 14,500
Jobs: 6,000
Housing: 600,000 m2 gross floor area
Jobs and services: 364,000 m2 gross floor area
Parking spaces: 1 space per 150 m2 gross floor area
City investment: EUR 217 million
Construction start: 2008
Completion date: 2023


The Jätkäsaari planning goals

Länsisatama - West Harbour: downtown by the sea, Landscape architecture competition - Press photos--City of Helsinki/City Planning Dep.

• Produce whole new attractive and ecologically sustainable city district, not just a sleepy suburb

• Meet the everyday needs of residents and workers

• Social well-being

- Differing socio-economic groups live close to one another all over the city (town planning aims to encourage this assimilation).

- Construction of the new district is expected to help meet the need for all types of housing, thus easing the housing situation throughout Helsinki:

About one third of all the housing will be social housing i.e. moderately priced rental flats owned by the City and other non-profit landlords;

Another third will be price-regulated free-market housing and right-of-occupancy housing;

The remaining third will be privately funded housing.

• To take advantage of special features of the area (district is almost entirely surrounded by the sea and shipping)

- The passenger harbour on the east side of the area will remain in its present position, catering for some 3 million passengers per year travelling from Helsinki to Tallinn and St Petersburg and vice versa.

- The buildings have been designed so that the streets do not turn into wind tunnels.

- No residential buildings will be placed in the immediate vicinity of the passenger harbour, because of the noise, bustle and pollution caused by shipping.

- A beach will be created on a sheltered cove in the area.

• Mobility management - New Mobility Culture: non-dependence of private cars in daily traffic

- Available good alternative modes of transport : trams, service bus lines, car share vehicles, taxis, bikes.

- Cycle paths to serve those living and working in every part of the district.

- High quality pedestrian environment.

- Up to three tram lines.

- Helsinki Metro already runs close to the northern edge of the area.

- Very few streets allowing vehicular access.

- Every residential street will be a cul-de-sac.

- Minimizing motorized traffic will also apply to waste management (garbage removal underground): sorted household waste will go straight into a pneumatic conveyance system leading to a central underground collection point.

- Car-free lifestyle: return to the traditional practice of having ground-floor shops in a continuous line along the streets.

- Municipal services be located within walking distance of users' homes.

"We are putting up a whole new city district, not just a suburb. Our starting points are that life there must be ecologically sound and pleasant, and it must meet the everyday needs of residents and those who work there. Social well-being, mobility management and the special features of the area are also important factors,"

"We are realistic enough to know that many Jätkäsaari residents will want their own wheels, but our idea is that local services and routes will be planned so that a car will not be needed for local access. Multi-storey car parks are planned for residents to keep parked cars from clogging up the streets", said, in 2007, the Project Leader Matti Kaijansinkko, the architect in charge of planning Jätkäsaari. [2]

Architecture

Länsisatama - West Harbour: downtown by the sea, Landscape architecture competition - Press photos--City of Helsinki/City Planning Dep.

Another feature that Kaijansinkko was proud of is the green belt winding through the area, reminiscent of Manhattan's Central Park. The green belt is expected to achieve great popularity and importance for the life of the whole district.

"The park has been designed to accommodate as many popular Finnish outdoor pursuits as possible: it will be possible to ski and skate there, to cycle, to play games and to enjoy a picnic. There will also be a sledging hill for children." [1]

Urban Development

InfoCentre Korona, the main building of Viikki green university campus district--City of Helsinki/City Planning Dep.

Urban housing challenges in Finland are relatively new. However, rapid development in recent years have spurred the movement of people into growth centres and increased the demand for housing.

Outside growth centres, part of the housing stock is vacant as the population is declining. A current issue is how to maintain a unified community structure, especially in cities such as Helsinki where high house prices make it difficult to attract people working in the service sectors.

Therefore, in the next decades urban investments are needed in the following areas:

• Regenerating urban harbour areas in Helsinki
• Transport infrastructure in the metropolitan region
• Housing development
• Housing repairs

A record number of new student housing in Helsinki metropolitan area

Eco-Viikki is a housing area but also a noteworthy and internationally renowned experimental project--City of Helsinki/City Planning Dep.

Second YLE, the official site of Finland's national broadcasting company, in three years the Metropolitan area will rise to a record number of new student housing.

HOAS (Foundation for Student Housing in the Helsinki Region), responsible for the construction, plans to build a total of almost 900 new homes. In total, HOAS rents out 8,200 apartments to 17,000 tenants. The average annual construction volume will almost double. The normal annual rate has been 150-200 new homes. New estate will rise, mainly in Helsinki and Espoo.

HOAS was established by 16 student unions and student bodies in 1969 to help relieve the shortage of student housing within the Helsinki metropolitan area. HOAS student accommodation can be applied for by anyone undertaking full-time studies in a secondary level educational institution or university, and part of HOAS’s accommodation is reserved for international exchange students and researchers.

According to Heikki Valkjärvi, CEO of HOAS, the current economic climate is favourable to these plans: “Construction costs have come down, so we are trying to launch as many projects as possible”, Valkjärvi recently said to YLE.

The next few years, the major projects will rise in Viikki, Jätkäsaari, Kalasatama and Matinkylä Matinkylä district of Espoo. In addition, HOAS will also accelerate housing renovations.The Viikki project will launch a construction boom, which is larger than any other HOAS project has been for many years. ”Because of the new Aalto University, the focus on construction is likely to be in the west in the future”, Valkjärvi told to HS.

Kalasatama will be planned for 18 000 residents and 10 000 jobs--City of Helsinki/City Planning Dep.

The chronic shortage of student housing continues in Helsinki, and the queues for housing at the HOAS have been increasing year after year. With the gradual increase in rents, most students are unable to compete in the unregulated rentals market in the Greater Helsinki. In comparison, the Foundation charges EUR 220 for a small 18 m2 room with the basic amenities in a former old people’s home in Helsinki’s Ruskeasuo district, while a bedsitter on the open market would easily cost EUR 600 to 700.

The number of applicants doubled over three years - in August 2005, it was 3,300, while in the autumn of 2008, the figure was 6,200, setting a record in the 30-year history of HOAS.

References:
[1] Salla Korpela, Jätkäsaari – city life for the new millennium?, virtual.finland.fi, Ulkoasiainministeriö, September 2007

[2] City of Helsinki/City Planning Department, Länsisatama - West Harbour: downtown by the sea, www.hel.fi , 15.08.2008

Related articles:

City of the future is for people, not cars 11.10.2007

777 - Turbo-Capitalism's Failure

Dow closed at 10365.45, dropped 777.68, the largest drop ever in history - Sept. 29, 2008 (black Monday) / By faungg , Some rights reserved

Markets have inefficiencies, because of their inability to correct the negative externalities of industrial outputs (production) and industrial inputs (depletion of non-renewable resources). Failure to calculate the costs to nonparticipants in transactions and failure to allocate resources efficiently, represent market failure definitions.

Externalities represent cases of market failures. A person (or company) who makes choices that affect other people not accounted for in the market price – like the pollution costs often unaccounted for in industrial greenhouse gas emissions- is creating an externality.

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Besides the externalities, non excludability and non rivalry are other common forms of market failure. To be efficient, markets should trade simultaneously both excludable and rival goods, and shouldn’t have externalities. In the market perspective, there are four types of goods: private goods (R,V), common goods (R, non-E), club goods (non-R,E) and public goods (non-R and non-E). [R-rival, E-excludable]

Excessive costs of excluding potential beneficiaries from the consumption of a rival natural or human-made resource, represent an inefficient market allocation - non excludability. Hence, "common" goods are defined by a property right regime in which only a collective body could exclude others from accessing rival resources, thereby allowing the capture of future benefits.

Stable “common property” regimes – suitable to the local level - must be based on certain principles which prevent the overexploitation of a resource system. However, these regimes are not the solution to large scale overuse , such as air pollution. In those situations, environmental regulations (economic impact estimated by cost-benefit analysis), quotas on pollution (tradeable emissions permits), taxes on pollution and adequate definition of property rights, might be preventive solutions to correct negative externalities.

Public goods are another type of market failure, because the market price doesn’t catch the social benefits of public provisions. For example, both social protection and environmental protection are inherently public goods, since their provision, in case of non-congestion, is non-rival and non-excludable, either protecting people from the risks of unemployment and illness or from environmental risks, like climate change.

If a public service faces problems of congestion or overuse, it will be a non-excludable but certainly a rivalrous good, making it a “common-pool resource”.

Privatization of public goods doesn’t change their intrinsic non-excludable, social and environmental characteristics. Nobody has the right to exclude people from protection, i.e., to prevent people who have not paid for the service, from receive its benefits .Most of public goods, like most of non-rival goods , are intangible, less fitted for an efficient private market.

Scarce, rivalrous, but also vital resources (like water) cannot be excludable. Water priced on a private market it would be the receipt to a humanitarian disaster, as the recent global market failures may prove.

With respect to local public services provision, the Finnish health care system is one of the most decentralized in Europe (as well as the other Nordic countries), with most of the Finnish people being generally satisfied with their national health care system. Local municipalities (Finnish: kunta) are the center of the system, largely public, where the private sector has little relevance today (only about 4% of Finnish doctors have a purely private activity) and the state has little intervention, defining goals and orientations. However, although the public health care and education, Finland has an advanced and competitive market economy.

According to Robin Hahnel (ecological economist), four environment related basic defects of a market economy can be enumerated: overexploitation of “common property” resources; overpollution; too little pollution cleanup; overconsumption. [ Hahnel (2005), pp66-72]

The view considering that markets are unable to correct negative externalities is in contradiction with the free-market environmentalist perspective. This perspective considers that both lack of ownership incentives to care for the property and multiplicity of ownership, represent the cause of overexploitation. In this point of view, pollution occurs because the property owners’ rights have not been totally respected and the legal authorities have inclination to favor big industry, public and common property over individuals and consumer organizations.

That approach also argue that resources are renewable and the market, by way of supply and demand, regulates consumption by adjusting it according to supply.The absence of sufficient incentives to create a potential “market” in a private economy, causes loss of efficiency, according to this view.

We can say that intrinsic characteristics of some type of goods, like the non-excludable goods (common goods and public goods), imply the design of sustainable social-environmental-economical systems, different from the private “markets”. See 1990 Ostrom's work about how people using real common property resources have worked to establish self-governing rules to reduce risks [Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the Commons. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press]

Bailout of US financial system / Green Recovery / Low-Carbon Economy

These previous considerations are also appropriated for the financial markets, specially for institutions which utilize them. The recent dramatic intervention of the Federal Reserve, aimed at bailing out Wall Street with a US$700 billion plan, was a spectacular representation of market failure. In fact, the market took multiple decisions that would affect millions of tax-payers, who weren’t accounted for in the finance market price.

"Markets have inherent and well-known inefficiencies. One factor is failure to calculate the costs to those who do not participate in transactions. These 'externalities' can be huge. That is particularly true for financial institutions. Their task is to take risks, calculating potential costs for themselves. But they do not take into account the consequences of their losses for the economy as a whole. (…)

The unprecedented intervention of the Fed may be justified or not in narrow terms, but it reveals, once again, the profoundly undemocratic character of state capitalist institutions, designed in large measure to socialise cost and risk and privatize profit, without a public voice. “
Noam Chomsky, accuracy.org

The actual "turbo-capitalist" crisis, whose end and global consequences are unpredictable, could constitute an opportunity to the construction of a new alternative economic model firmly based on the environmental, economic and social domains, with new concepts of “growth” - not just a “green“ recovery based on this capitalist model, but a effective Low-Carbon Economy model.

However, a future green recovery may be compromised. The actual situation of financial collapse, with the state injecting hundreds of billions in the financial capitalist system, doesn’t assure the future application of funds on the environmental and social areas. It may even deflect these funds from many necessary and urgent investments in those areas.

Past Friday, 3 October 2008, the US House of Representatives voted in favour of a financial rescue plan after rejecting an earlier version. The approved package is aimed at buying up the bad debts of failing financial institutions on Wall Street, having the Treasury $700 billion to buy “toxic” mortgages, securities and related assets, that have undermined the US financial structure. But the deep causes of the US financial market collapse still continue unknown, and therefore this massive intervention probably cannot reach them.

So far “toxic” products are the justification for the financial market failure. However, financial products are increasingly designed trough technological innovation, which has replaced experienced professional traders by computers running software based on algorithmic trading, trying to simulate human behavior, deciding on timing, price and the final quantity of the orders. Although many claim an increased market efficiency with “robo trading” the last events could contradict it, and thus we could be in presence of a global technological (in)adaptation.

On September 29 2008, the Dow Jones lost 777.68 points, the largest one day point loss in its history, following news that the US House of Representatives had failed to pass the $700 bn bailout bill. Only after the Monday's 777-point stock-market slump the political class started to see the extension and deepness of the crisis. The “shock” and the claims from worried November potential voters motivated the Friday morning vote change. The bill that establishes the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 - previously approved by the Senate, on October 1 2008 - was sent to the House, and on Friday, October 3, the House voted 263-171 to enact the bill into law.

References:
Wikipedia article, Environmental economics

Related articles:
From the US housing bubble to the (proposed) bailout of US financial system
Fed eyes Nordic Model

Paz, Pão, Saúde, Educação

image by by Thanos K & Asa B - Ovimagazine

O início de 2008 tem sido marcado pelo encerramento de vários serviços de saúde por todo o país, gerando protestos das populações contra estas medidas governamentais. Num país desequilibrado, que ainda sofre de grandes desigualdes sociais e territoriais, medidas vergonhosas como o encerramento de centros de saúde e de maternidades causam a mais viva repulsa a qualquer cidadão com um mínimo de sensibilidade.

Em Portugal, o direito à protecção da saúde é constitucionalmente garantido por meio de um serviço nacional de saúde (SNS) universal e geral, tendencialmente gratuito, que tenha uma racional e eficiente cobertura de todo o país em recursos humanos e unidades de saúde e uma gestão descentralizada e participada.

Continue a ler
Assim, o Estado é obrigado a garantir o SNS. Se não o fizer através da administração central ou desconcentrada, terá de criar as condições económicas e políticas necessárias às autarquias locais e regionais. Recentemente, tem estado a decorrer um processo de transferência de competências da administração central para a local. No entanto, na área da Saúde parece estar em “stand-by”.

No âmbito da transferência de competências para os municípios, ( artº 22º da Lei do Orçamento de Estado para 2008), foi proposta a concessão ao Governo de autorização para transferir para os Municípios dotações inscritas nos Ministérios respectivos, relativas a competências a descentralizar nos domínios da educação, acção social e saúde. Segundo a ANMP, este processo de negociações avançou alguns passos nas áreas da Educação e da Acção Social, mas foi suspenso na área da Saúde, tendo sido a área do Ambiente e Ordenamento do Território excluída das transferências propostas.

Tendo em consideração as vantagens da descentralização de competências para o Poder Local:

Vantagens [1]

- Vantagem em adaptar os serviços à procura local e às condições locais.

- Oportunidades para inovação, com riscos localizados, mas com potenciais benefícios nacionais.

- Aumento de responsabilidade dos funcionários locais, com um melhor atendimento às populações locais.

- Potencial para coordenação de serviços e investimentos que lidam com problemáticas comuns .

- Eficiência governativa local incrementada pela partilha de serviços comuns.

- Capacidade de aproveitar recursos locais, tais como impostos, “know-how” e responsabilidade social.

E tendo em conta que as desvantagens poderão ser minimizadas por várias medidas, no sentido de superar a falta de recursos humanos e materiais locais:

Desvantagens

- Disparidades no nível de serviços prestados ao longo do território, sendo desejável uniformidade e igualdade de oportunidades, particularmente no sector da educação.

- Excessiva interferência política em processos em que é necessária imparcialidade e visão de âmbito nacional.

- Excessivos interesses corporativos, para os quais os políticos locais poderão não ter o “peso político” necessário.

- Jurisdições das autarquias locais poderão ter uma dimensão demasiada pequena para viabilizar serviços ou para conseguir atrair profissionais especializados.

Formas de superar as desvantagens

- Cooperação inter-municipal (no sentido de superar as dificuldades das entidades locais de menor dimensão).

- Atribuição de funções a níveis de poder mais elevados (no sentido de superar as dificuldades das entidades locais de menor dimensão).

- Contratação externa de serviços (no sentido de superar as dificuldades das entidades locais de menor dimensão).

No entanto, esta prática pode tornar-se inadequada no âmbito de serviços de carácter social, para os quais o sector privado pode não estar especialmente vocacionado.

- Equalização financeira, no sentido de superar as desigualdades regionais.

- A descentralização de competências para o Poder Localdeverá ser acompanhada pelo desenvolvimento de sistemas de audição e inspecção eficazes.

Parece-nos ser, no mínimo, surpreendente a suspensão deste processo. A transferência de competências do Estado para o Poder Local não significa abdicação de responsabilidades - implica uma intensa cooperação entre todos os níveis de governo democrático. O governo e os municípios têm de ultrapassar eventuais desentendimentos e desconfianças mútuas e chegar a uma solução que garanta a prestação de cuidados de saúde às populações. Os cortes orçamentais não deveriam ser realizados nesta área essencial para um desenvolvimento humano harmonioso.

"A paz, o pão habitação saúde, educação" da composição "Liberdade" de Sérgio Godinho
Palavras de esperança, mas tambem de desilusão por promessas que ficaram por cumprir desde 25 de Abril de 1974.

Referência:
[1] Davey, Kenneth, Division of reponsibility between levels of power, 2003

Portugal é um dos países mais centralizados da UE

Portugal é um dos países mais centralizados da União Europeia, tendo 30 anos de uma relativamente jovem democracia parlamentar[55] e de um poder local democrático[56]. A Finlândia tem uma democracia parlamentar centenária e é um dos mais descentralizados países da União Europeia. Factores históricos e culturais terão certamente contribuído para este desfasamento, claramente reflectido na competitividade, “transparência”[57] e “desenvolvimento humano”[58] dos dois países.

Continue a lerAssim, assume um papel decisivo a questão da “descentralização/regionalização”. A Finlândia possuí uma longa tradição de autonomia municipal e de descentralização administrativa e política. No entanto, a regionalização finlandesa está a ser desenvolvida duma forma progressiva e experimental - os seus orgãos deliberativos (assembleias regionais) são compostos por representantes eleitos pelos membros dos municípios por um período de quatro anos, o tempo entre eleições locais, sendo, portanto, não directamente eleitos pela população(em Portugal a CRP define um misto de sufrágio directo e indirecto para as eleições regionais).

Em Portugal, torna-se cada vez mais necessário acelerar o processo de descentralização, criando desde já infra-estruturas administrativas, antes do futuro referendo obrigatório. É fundamental diminuir as desigualdades e desequilíbrios económico-sociais territoriais, evitando “neo-centralismos”, mas não permitindo que estes constituam um bloqueio ao processo.

A democracia não se reduz a uma eleição legislativa quadrianual, nem ao multipartidarismo. É a combinação de vários níveis de organização democrática de dimensão espacial territorial com várias formas de democracia que potenciem diariamente a participação democrática das populações. É esta matriz dinâmica de forças democráticas que terá de ser melhorada, havendo ainda um um longo caminho a percorrer - é necessário que as “pirâmides do poder” reduzam a sua “altura” e se redistribuam equilibradamente ao longo do território.

[11. Portugal é um dos países mais centralizados da UE - "Finlândia: Municípios e Descentralização"]

Luís Alves

____________________________________________

[55] A 25 de Abril de 1975 realizou-se a eleição para a Assembleia Constituinte,a primeira eleição por sufrágio verdadeiramente universal realizada em Portugal, com uma afluência histórica de 91% dos cidadãos recenseados.

[56] 30 Anos de Poder Local Democrático, Comemorações - Junho de 2006 a Junho de 2007, www.anmp.pt/anmp/div2006/30a

[57] Global Corruption Report 2006, www.transparency.org/publications/gcr

[58] Human Development Report 2006, hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/pdfs/report

Reformas recentes na Investigação e no Ensino Superior - Políticas de I&D

De seguida, traduzimos dois excertos dedicados à Finlândia, dum artigo científico sobre a Investigação e o Ensino Superior nos países nórdicos, numa perspectiva comparativa. [15]

Reformas recentes na Investigação e no Ensino Superior

“Em 1999, o Plano de Desenvolvimento para a Educação e Investigação (1999-2004) foi adoptado na Finlândia. Foca-se em melhorar qualidade através da avaliação e da competição, igualdade educacional, aprendizagem vitalícia e um compromisso público para manter um nível alto de financiamento.

Continue a lerAs instituições do ensino superior foram encorajadas a melhorar (i) a receptividade regional, por cooperação com a sociedade local, e (ii) a internacionalização a todos os níveis; como um objectivo estratégico, é previsto que aproximadamente um terço de todos os estudantes estude no estrangeiro, pelo menos parte da sua graduação. Hoje, realizações significativas nestas áreas tornaram-se uma marca de qualidade do ensino superior finlandês. Também a infra-estrutura tecnológica finlandesa é considerada uma das melhores do mundo, e a engenharia é fortemente representada nas instituições superiores de educação - no que a isto diz respeito, o sistema finlandês difere de muitos dos seus parceiros europeus.

Em anos recentes , foi transferida autoridade do Ministério de Educação para as instituições, e o sistema de gestão por desempenho está hoje em dia baseado em bem desenvolvidos procedimentos de avaliação. As universidades e o ministério formulam objectivos para cada instituição e fazem acordos sobre financiamentos ou sobre o número de estudantes a ser inscritos (como é o caso dos politécnicos). De acordo com o Acto Universitário[16] , as universidades são autónomas e são intituladas a aceitar os representantes externos (negócios e outros) como membros das administrações. O Acto Politécnico, ratificado em 2003, reconheceu o papel dos parceiros sociais na formulação dos objectivos para os politécnicos.” [15] [trad.]

Políticas de I&D

“O sistema de ensino superior finlandês é caracterizado pela competitividade, e é focado em resultados e inovação. O princípio de “gestão por resultados” - cedo foi adoptado em ordem a aumentar a responsabilidade. Foi concedida às universidades uma maior autonomia e os conselhos de investigação foram reorganizados para melhor responder à procura socio-económica e à interdisciplinaridade. Um assunto chave para o sistema de ensino superior finlandês é o fortalecimento da autonomia universitária e um desenvolvimento equilibrado do sistema binário de universidades e politécnicos. O nível alto de desemprego na Finlândia continuará muito provavelmente a pôr um desafio à política de ensino superior como também as grandes expectativas que “actores” regionais e outros têm sobre a contribuição das instituições para o desenvolvimento socio-económico. No futuro, o financiamento baseado no desempenho, levando em conta taxas de emprego dos graduados, será incrementado. O princípio de igualdade da educação e aproximação da aprendizagem ao longo da vida continuarão a estar na agenda da investigação e do ensino superior.” [15] [trad.]

[5. Reformas recentes na Investigação e no Ensino Superior - Políticas de I&D - "Finlândia: Municípios e Descentralização"]

Luís Alves

____________________________________________

[15] Evanthia Kalpazidou Schmidt, Research and Higher Education in the Nordic Countries, A Comparison of the Nordic Systems, 5. Recent Reforms in Research and Higher Education, Working paper 2004/3, November 2004, The Danish Centre for Studies in Research and Research Policy,University of Aarhus, pag. 22:26 [traduzido]

[16] Universities Act, www.finlex.fi